INTRODUCTION:

The genus Amaranthus (Amaranthaceae) encompasses 70 species. It is distributed in tropical to temperate regions^1,2. Most of these are native to America and 15 out of 70 species come from Asia, Europe, Africa and Australia³. It has been a staple food for decades during many civilizations, including the Inca, Maya, and Aztec ⁴. However, attention to this species increased in the 1980s, when the US National Academy of Sciences defined its nutritional value and agronomic potential^4,5. At present, the species of Amaranthus are highly consumed as grain and vegetable and extensively cultivated in many countries, including Central America, China, Southern and Eastern Africa, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Mexico, and Nepal^4-5 or cultivated as ornamental and weedy Amaranthus⁶. Amaranthus species are important members of pseudo-cereals⁷.

The National Botanical Research Institute India (NBRI) has assembled one of the most comprehensive collections of Amaranth germplasm globally, encompassing nearly 400 accessions from 20 species, almost half dedicated to grain types⁸. The species of Amaranthus encompasses a variety of important phytoconstituents including rutin, quercitin, isoquercitin, betalains, phenolic acid and hydroxycinnamates which have diverse properties like, anti-microbial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, anti-cancerous, antimalarial, cardioprotective, and gastroprotective⁸. As Compared to rice, wheat, and oats the species of Amaranthus grain are gluten-free and enriched with more than 30% protein with complete amino acids^9-10.

Amaranthus spinosus L. and Amaranthus paniculatus L. are important members of this family. These are annual monoecious herbs; erect, branched, grow up to 100–130 cm tall, and are found in tropical, subtropical and some temperate regions^11-12. The grains are generally called “pseudo-cereal” and are highly nutritious, and yield high energy. Starch, and protein can be utilized to develop value-added products with high nutritional value⁴. These are also widely used in traditional medicine systems. In the Chinese system of traditional medicine, Amaranthus spinosus L. is used to treat diabetes, and its seeds are used against bone fracture, internal bleeding, diarrhoea, and excessive menstruation¹¹. The roots is used as effective diuretic and toothaches^11,13. In Nepal and some tribals n India, Amaranthus spinosus L. is used to induce abortion^14-15.

Amaranthus is commonly known as Tanduliya in Ayurveda texts. Along with Amaranthus spinosus L., A. paniculitus L. also mentioned in the Ayurveda text by Bhavprakasha commonly known as Chaulai in Hindi, and Tanduliya, Meghanada in Sanskrit¹⁶.

The characteristics of Amaranthus (Tanduliya) according to Ayurveda are “Ruksha” (rough), anti-narcosis, anti-poison, “Madhura rasa” (sweet taste), “Madhura vipaka”, sheeta virya (cold). It is also beneficial in internal haemorrhages especially in haemorrhagia and bleeding piles¹⁷.

These species also have promising therapeutic properties including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, antimicrobial, antimalarial, anti-ulcer, antigenic, antipyretic, diuretic, gastrointestinal, hematological, immuno-modulatory, anti-hyperlipidemic, anthelminthic, Anticancer potency and spermatogenic activities^18-21.

Amaranthus spinosus L. contains many important phytochemical compounds like 7-p-coumaroyl apigenin 4-O-β-D-glucopyranoside, spinoside, xylofuranosyl uracil, β-D-ribofuranosyl adenine, β-sitosterol glucoside, hydroxycinnamates, quercetin and kaempferol glycosides, betalains; β-xanthin, β-cyanin; amaranthine and isoamaranthine, gomphrenin, betanin, bsitosterol, stigmasterol, linoleic acid, rutin, and β-carotene^22-24. The plant is consumed due to its antioxidant properties and nutritive value²⁵. Amaranthus L. species are rich in oleic, linoleic and linolenic fatty acids, compounds with antioxidant properties, such as tocopherols. It also contains anthocyanins and flavonoids, as well as other phenolics. The leaves and stem of this species are good sources of minerals like iron and calcium and also consist of vitamin A and C. The seeds possess β-sitosterol and α-tocopherol²⁶.

Recently, seven different compounds, such as di-glycoside flavonoids hesperidin, rutin, one phenolic acid (E)-ferulic acid, tyrosine, arginine, spinasterol, and spinasterol 3-O-β-D glucopyranoside were isolated from Amaranthus species²⁷. This paper focuses on comparative study of seeds of two species of Amaranthus, black (A. spinosus L.) and pale white (A. paniculatus).

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Collection and authentication of the sample:

Authentic sample of dried seeds of Amaranthus spinosus L. and Amaranthus paniculatus were procured from the peripheral Institutes of the Central Council for Research in Ayurvedic Sciences (CCRAS), Ministry of AYUSH, Govt. of India. Botanical details of both plants were confirmed from the Flora British India²⁸. The seed sample were preserved in raw drug museum of Regional Ayurveda Research Institute, Jammu vide No. RARI-JM-005 and RARI-JM-068.

Section Cutting:

The dried seeds were soaked in water for 2 – 3 hrs. to facilitate softening of the outer tissue. Free hand sections were cut using a sharp razor blade.

Preparation of powder:

The dried seeds were ground into a fine powder using a blender. The powder was subsequently sifted through a standard 60-mesh sieve as per the established procedure. The resulting sifted powder was then utilized for the study.

Powder analysis:

Pharmacognostic studies were conducted on dried raw drug samples following the standard method outlined in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Macroscopic features were observed visually and with a stereo-microscope (Olympus SZ2-ILST). Microscopic examination was performed using an Olympus trinocular microscope CX41 at various magnifications. Freehand sections of the samples were cleared with distilled water and observed under the microscope without staining. Histochemical studies were conducted and photomicrographs were captured and scale bars provided for magnification representation. Powder microscopy was carried out to observe the diagnostic characteristics of the sample.

Physicochemical analysis:

Physicochemical parameters like loss on drying, total ash, acid insoluble, alcohol soluble extractive value, aqueous soluble extractive value, pH, and foreign matter were determined following the methods specified in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (API) ²⁸.

TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography):

4 g of the seed was soaked overnight in 40 ml of ethanol, boiled, filtered, and made up to a 10 ml volumetric flask. A 10 µl and 15 µl aliquot of the sample solution were applied to Tracks 1 and Track 2, respectively, on an E. Merck aluminum plate pre-coated with Silica gel 60 F₂₅₄plate(0.2 mm thickness) using an ATS4 applicator. The plate was developed in a solvent system comprising Toluene, ethylacetate and formic acid in 5:5:0.5 for A. spinosa and 9:0.8:0.2 for A. paniculatus at a distance of 90 mm and dried. Subsequently, the plate was visualized using a CAMAG TLC Visualizer under UV light at wavelengths of 254 nm and 366 nm, with photographs taken. Finally, the plate was immersed in Vanillin-Sulfuric acid reagent and heated in a hot air oven at 105°C until spots appeared, and an image was captured.

RESULT:

Macroscopy:

Microscopic features of “Tanduliya” (A. spinosus L.) (Figure 1a-c) and “Jivanta” (A. paniculatus L) (Figure 1d-1f) are summarised in Table 1.

Figure 1. Morphology of dried seed of in A.spinosus L. (a-c), powder (g); and A. paniculatus L. (d-f), powder h)

Table 1. Comparative macroscopic features of two species of Amaranthus.

S. No.

Feature

Amaranthus spinosus L.

Amaranthus paniculatus L.

Colour and texture

Shape

Structure

Size

Black, lustrous

Lenticular

Compressed very faintly reticulate, thickest at the middle, and with a thin margin

0.7 -0.8 mm in diameter

Pale white

Spherical

Central disc bounded by a horseshoe-shaped rim.

~ 1mm in diameter.

Microscopy:

Amaranthus spinosus L.:

Diagrammatic T.S. of A.spinosus L. seed is oval shaped in outline showing seed coat, followed by cotyledon, centrally placed perisperm occupying the major area of section and radicle at the base. Detailed T.S. of seed shows seed coat consisting of an outer testa composed of thick-walled radially elongated cells, followed by a collapsed cell layers of 2-3 rows, beneath lies an inner epidermis composed of cells with characteristic spiral thickenings, followed by perisperm which comprises radially elongated parenchymatous cells packed with abundant starch. Major portion of the seed is occupied by the endosperm which caps the radicle and cotyledons (Figure 2). The organoleptic characteristics like colour, odour, taste, and texture of powder are summarized in Table. 2.

The powder Microscopy shows the epicarp cell, outer epidermis of the testa, inner epidermis with spirally thickened walls; fragments of endosperm; and abundant starch grains (Figure 3).

Amaranthus paniculatus L.:

T.S. of A. paniculatus L. seed is oval shaped in outline showing seed coat, followed by cotyledon, centrally placed perisperm occupying the major area of section and radicle at the base.

Detailed T.S. of seed shows testa consisting of thick walled radially elongated cells, below which lies a parenchymatous layer of 2-3 rows, the inner epidermis composed of cells with characteristic spiral thickenings, followed by perisperm cell which comprises of parenchymatous cells packed with abundant starch (Figure 4). The organoleptic characteristics are summarized in Table. 2.

The powder Microscopy of A. paniculatus L. shows the epicarp cell, outer epidermis of the testa cell, inner epidermis with spirally thickened walls; fragments of endosperm; abundant starch grains, scattered oil globules (Figure 5).

Table. 2. Organoleptic features of A. spinosus L. and A. paniculatus L.

S. No.

Characters

Amaranthus spinosus L.

Amaranthus paniculatus L.

Colour of powder

Odour

Taste

Texture

Light blackish (Figure 1g)

Pungent in smell

Bitter

smooth

Pale white

(Figure 1h)

Pungent in smell

Bitter

Smooth

Figure 2. TS of seed of Amaranthus spinosus L. ote, outer testa; e, epidermis; p, parenchyma; spt, spiral thickning; sg, starch grain; pers, perisperm.

Figure 4. T.S. of seed of A. paniculatus L. (a-d). e,epidermis; spt, spiral thickning; ag, aleurone grain; p, parenchyma; sg, starch grain; pers, perisperm.

Figure 5. Photo-micrographs of powder of A. paniculatus L. (Seed) (a-h). inner epidermis of testa cell (a); outer epidermis of testa cell (b); epicarp cell (c); starch grain (d); fragments of endosperm (e); oil globules (h).

Physicochemical studies:

The results of the physicochemical analysis show significant variations between the two species of Amaranthus mentioned in Table 3. The foreign matter is only a single parameter that is similar in both species. The total loss on drying was reported higher in the case of A. paniculatus (11.84%) than A. spinosus (8.98%). Similarly, Aqueous and alcohol soluble extractive value, and Acid insoluble were also calculated higher in Amaranthus paniculatus L. However, the Ash value is the only parameter that shows higher in A. spinosus (4.25%) than A. paniculatus (0.36%). The pH of A. paniculatus L. is slightly acidic as compared to A. spinosus L. with a difference of 0.94 at 4% aqueous solution.

Table 3. Physicochemical parameters of seed of Amaranthus spinosus L. and Amaranthus paniculatus L.

Physicochemical Parameters		Value
Physicochemical Parameters		*Amaranthus spinosus* L	*Amaranthus paniculatus L.*
Foreign matter		Less than 2	Less than 2
Moisture content	LOD	8.98 % w/w	11.84 % w/w
Ash values	Total Ash	4.25 % w/w	0.36 % w/w
Ash values	Acid insoluble ash	0.17 % w/w	2.09 % w/w
Extractive value	Aqueous soluble	7.29 % w/w	11.84 % w/w
Extractive value	Alcohol soluble	6.24 % w/w	22.50 % w/w
pH (4% aqueous solution)		6.66	5.72

TLC fingerprint:

The result of TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography) in alcohol extract is presented in Table 4 Under UV- 254, 366nm and visible light (in Vanillin-Sulphuric acid), the A. spinosus L show 3, 7, and 12 spots, whereas A. paniculatus L. represent 6, 8, and 7 spots with different Rf values (Figure 6 & 7). The fingerprint scanned at 254 nm shows bands at Rf values 0.52, 0.58, and 0.64 in A spinosus L. and 0.06, 0.13, 0.38, 0.42, 0.45, and 0.76 in A. paniculatus L. and the bands have appeared green colour in both the species (Table 4). Similarly, at 366 nm of UV, the 7 bands are obtained in A. spinosus L. i.e., at Rf values 0.10, 0.12, 0.19, 0.25, 0.29, 0.45, and 0.47 which appeared in light green, blue, and red colours. While, at this wavelength, the extract of A. paniculatus L. represents eight bands at Rf values ranging from 0.03 to 0.81 which appeared in two colours i.e., blue and red (Table 4; Figure 6 & 7).

Under visible light in Derivatised with Vanillin-Sulphuric acid, the number of spots formed in species spinosus (12 bands) is higher than in A. paniculatus L (7 bands). The Rf values are obtained between 0.10 to 0.85 and appear in three colours. Of these, brown appeared at the maximum spots (0.10, 0.51, 0.56, 0.62, and 0.68) followed by black (0.42, 0.47, 0.64, 0.67) and violet at (0.31, 0.37 and 0.85) (Table 4). Whereas in A. paniculatus L. the bands are formed at the Rf values 0.12, 0.9, 0.44, 0.66, 0.70, 0.79, and 0.87. The gray colour is the most prominent colour appearing at 0.12, 0.39, 0.44, and 0.66; where as blue appeared at 0.70 and 0.87, and green at 0.79 (Table 4; Figure 6 & 7).

Table 4. Rf Values of the extracts of A. spinosus L. and A. paniculatus L. at UV 254 nm, UV 366nm, and Derivatised withVanillin-Sulphuric acid.

S. No

UV 254 nm

UV 366 nm

Derivatised with

Vanillin-Sulphuric acid

A. spinosus L.

A. paniculatus L.

A. spinosus L.

A. paniculatus L.

A. spinosus L.

A. paniculatus L.

R_f

Colour

R_f

Colour

R_f

Colour

R_f

Colour

R_f

Colour

R_f

Colour

Track-1

and

Track-2

0.52

0.58

0.64

Green

0.06

0.13

0.38

0.42

0.45

0.76

Green

0.10

0.12

0.19

0.25

0.29

0.45

0.47

Light green

Blue

Red

0.03

0.42

0.46

0.49

0.57

0.66

0.78

0.81

Blue

Red

Blue

Red

Blue

Red

Blue

0.10

0.31

0.37

0.42

0.47

0.51

0.56

0.62

0.64

0.67

0.68

0.85

Brown

Violet

Black

Brown

Black

Brown

Violet

0.12

0.39

0.44

0.66

0.70

0.79

0.87

Gray

Blue

Green

Blue

Figure 6. Graphical representation of band formed at different Rf values in A.spinosus L. (a) and A. paniculatus L. (b).

Figure 7. Photodocumentation of TLC of A.spinosa L. (a) and A. paniculate L. at UV 254nm, 366nm and Derivatized with vanillin H₂SO₄.

DISCUSSION:

The detailed study of T.S. of the seeds of A. spinosus L. and A. paniculatus L. shows that the two seeds are markedly different morphologically. The black seeds of A. spinosus L. disc like small and shiny, while as A. paniculatus L. are round and pale white. However, the analysis of both seeds is almost similar both have testa, collapsed cell layer. A. paniculatus L. has a layer of spirally thickened cells. Variation was also observed in colour of the powder. However, the taste, odour, and texture of the powder is similar in both species of Amaranthus L. (Figure. 1). The powder analysis also confirmed that both have almost similar characteristic features. However, many scattered oil globules were present in the A. paniculatus L. which is also reported in early study²⁶. Difference have also been reported in the pharmacognostic study of leaves of these two species^30-31.

On comparison of physicochemical properties. The values of loss on drying, acid insoluble ash, aqueous soluble extractive value and alcohol soluble extractive value are higher in A. paniculatus L. as compared to the Amaranthus spinosus L. whereas values of ash and pH are opposite. Similar studies have also been conducted on leaf, root, stem and seed^{11, 29-31}. The physicochemical values of A. paniculatus described by Parmar and Sheth (2020) are shows significance variation as compare to the present study, which may be result of difference in the certain factors of two collection sides.

The TLC fingerprint profile of A.spinosus L. and A paniculatus L. shows significant variation in their Rf values irrespective of the colour observed. At 254nm wavelength both the species show similar colour despite different Rf values. However, at 366 mm wavelength, red colour is more prominent in A. spinosus L. But, A. paniculatus L shows five blue and 3 red colour bands. Similarly, in Derivatised with Vanillin-Sulphuric acid solution the brown, black and violet colour bands are observed in A. spinosus L. and blue, green and gray colours are observed in the case of A paniculatus L. Hence, on these distinct characteristics both the species can easily be differentiated.

CONCLUSION:

The present investigation was a comparative study of Amaranthus spinosus L. and Amaranthus paniculatus L. seeds. This study clearly shows significant morphological, anatomical, physicochemical, and phytochemical differences, despite some similarities. Morphologically, the seeds differ in colour, shape, and size. However, the anatomical features in both seeds possess similar structures like the testa and collapsed cell layer, though A. paniculatus uniquely displays spirally thickened cells and a higher presence of oil globules. The physicochemical parameters, such as LOD, ash values, extractive values of alcohol and water, and pH, further support differentiation, showing variations that may be influenced by environmental or topographical factors. The TLC fingerprinting provides the most distinct differentiation, with varied Rf values and colouration under different wavelengths and derivatisation conditions. These findings confirm that although both species belong to the same genus and share certain characteristics, they can be reliably distinguished through detailed pharmacognostic, physicochemical, and chromatographic analysis. The parameters may be used as a standard parameter for the identification and authentication of raw material of a new herbal drug.

CONFLICTS OF INTEREST:

There are no conflicts of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

The Authors thank the Director General CCRAS, Ministry of AYUSH, Government of India, New Delhi for funding the project. The authors are also thankful to Dr. Rama Rao, CARI Bangalore for supplying the raw material for this study.

REFERENCE:

1. Do Huy Bich. Medicinal plants and animal medicine in Vietnam, Hanoi Science and Technology Publishing House. 2012; 1: 1233,

2. Venskutonis PR, Kraujalis P. Nutritional Components of Amaranth Seeds and Vegetables: A Review on Composition, Properties, and Uses. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 2013; 12(4): 381–412. https://doi.org/10.1111/1541-4337.12021.

3. Marinez-Lopez A, Millan-Linares MC and Rodriguez-Martin NM. Nutraceutical value of Kiwicha (Amaranthus caudutus L.). Journal of Functional Foods. 2020; 65:103735.

4. Maurya NK, Arya P. Amaranthus grain nutritional benefits: A review. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2018; 7(2): 2258-2262.

5. Peter K, Ghandhi P. Rediscovering the therapeutic potential of Amaranthus species: A review. Egyptian Journal of Basic and Applied Science. 2017; 4: 196-205.

6. Sauer JD. The grain Amaranths and their relatives: A revised taxonomic and geographic survey. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden.1967; 54: 103–137.

7. Singh L, Kumar P, Kaushik N, Sharma S, Kumar P. Preparation and characterization of modified starch isolated from Amaranthus paniculatus Linn. Biotechnology and Indian Journal. 2008; 2(2): 123-126.

8. Pal M. Amaranthus: evolution, genetic resources and utilization. Environews. Newsletter of ISEB, India, 1999: 5.

9. Valcarcel-Yamani, B., da Silva, Caetano, Lannes, S. Applications of Quinoa (Chenopodium qyuinoa Willd.) and Amaranth (Amaranthus Spp.) and their influence in the nutritional value of cereal based foods. Food and Public Health. 2012; 2: 265–275.

10. Das S. Amaranthus: A promising crop of future. Springer Singapore. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-1469-7

11. Baral M, Datta A, Chakraborty S, Chakraborty P. Pharmacognostic studies on stem and leaves of Amaranthus spinosus Linn. International Journal of Applied biology and pharmaceutical Technology. 2011; 2(1): 41-47.

12. Tanmoy G, Arijit M, Tanushree S, Jagadish S, Kumar MT. Pharmacological actions and phytoconstituents of Amaranthus spinosus Linn: A review. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research 2014; 6(2): 405–413.

13. Hilou A, Nacoulmaa OG, Guiguemdeb TR. In vivo antimalarial activities of extracts from Amaranthus spinosus L. and Boerhaavia erecta L. in mice. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 2006; 103: 236–240

14. Azhar-ul-Haq, Malik A, Khan AU,Shah MR, Muhammad P. Spinoside, new coumaroyl flavone glycoside from Amaranthus spinosus. Archives of Pharmacal Research. 2004; 27(12): 1216-1219

15. Igoli JO, Ogaji OG, Tor-Anyiin TA, Igoli NP. Traditional Medicine Practice Amongst The Igede People of Nigeria. Part II. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines. 2005; 2(2): 134-152.

16. Sharma P. Dravya Gun Vijyana, Vol- III, Chaukhambha Bharati Academy Varanasi. 2000:193-194.

17. Sharma PV. Caraka Samhita, Sutrasthana 27/ 94, Vol-I, Chaukhambha Orientaliya, Varanasi. 1981: 201

18. Jimoh, M.O, Afolayan, A.J and Lewu, F.B. Therapeutic uses of Amaranthus caudatus L. Tropical Biomedicine. 2019; 36(4):1038–1053.

19. Sangameswaran B, and Jayakar B. Anti-diabetic, anti-hyperlipedemic and spermatogenic effects of Amaranthus spinosus L. on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Journal of Natural Medicine. 2008; 62: 79-82

20. Abir MH, Ahmad M. Phytochemical, Nutritional and Pharmacological Potentialities of Amaranthus spinosus Linn. : A review. Archives of ecotoxicology. 2021; 3(2): 49-59.

21. Kawade RM, Ghiware NB, Sarje SK, Vadvalkar SK. A pharmacognostic and pharmacological review: Amaranthus spinosus. World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. 2013; 2(6): 2099-2110.

22. Suryavanshi VL, Sathe PA, Baing MM, Singh GR, Lakshmi SN. Determination of Rutin in Amaranthus spinosus Linn. Whole Plant Powder by HPTLC. Chromatography. 2007; 2(2): 134-152. https://doi.org/10.1365/s10337-007-0239-1

23. Odhava B, Beekrumb S, Akulaa U, Baijnath H. Preliminary assessment of nutritional value of traditional leafy vegetables in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 2007; 20: 430-35.

24. Barminas T, Charles M, Emmanuel D. Mineral composition of non-conventional leafy vegetables. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. 1998; 53: 29-36.

25. Vinson J. A., Hao Y., Su X., Zubik L. Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: vegetables, Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 1998; 46(9): 3630-3634

26. Joshi N and Verma KC. A review on nutrition value of Amaranthus (Amaranthus caudatus L.): the crop of future. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry. 2020; 9(4): 317-319.

27. Tuyen PNK, Duong NTT, Lien DTM. Insights into chemical constituents of Amaranthus spinosus L. (Amaranthaceae). Vietnam Journal of Chemistry. 2019; 57(2): 245-249.

28. Hooker JD. The Flora of British India, Vol.II, L. Reeve & Co. Ltd., Kent, England.1879; 261.

29. Parmar BK and Sheth N. Pharmacognostical standardization of amaranthus paniculatus seed. International Journal of PharmaO2. 2020; 2(3): 204-213.

30. Jhade D, Ahirwar D, Jain R, Sharma NK and Gupta S. Pharmacognostic Standardization, Physico- and Phytochemical Evaluation of Amaranthus Spinosus Linn. Root. Journal of Young Pharmacist. 2011; 3: 221-5.

31. Mathur Y, Khatri P, Samanta KC, Sharma A, Mandal S. Pharmacognostic and preliminary phytochemical investigations of Amaranthus spinosus (Linn.) leaves. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 2010; 2(4): 121-124.

Received on 19.12.2024 Revised on 22.05.2025

Accepted on 21.08.2025 Published on 10.02.2026

Available online from February 16, 2026

Research J. Pharmacy and Technology. 2026;19(2):820-826.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2026.00117

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. Creative Commons License.